UPSC 2024 GS 3 | SPM IAS

1. Examine the pattern and trend of public expenditure on social services in the post-reforms period in India. To what extent has this been in consonance with achieving the objective of inclusive growth?

View

Expenditure on social services and social welfare is the core of a Welfare and Democratic nation which is also the fundamental of Indian Government outlined in article 38 ( DPSP) of Indian Constitution. This Expenditure has an evolving pattern and trend with passing of time and changing demand of citizens.

Pattern and trend of public expenditure on social services in the post-reforms period in India

Focused on Human capital development: Post reform period government has been focusing on skill development, betterment and advancing the education sector, efficient health sector etc. Ex: Skill India mission, Ayushman Bharat scheme and NEP 2020 etc. Shift from Development of citizen to citizen led development: Post reform period government is emphasizing on making citizens as the active agent of growth and development. Ex: PM MUDRA scheme and STARTUP India mission: Provides loans to emerging entrepreneurs to develop their own business. GYAN: Public expenditure in post reform has been shifted toward the development of Garib, Yuva, Annadat and Nari. Ex: Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana for Garib, PM KISAN samman nidhi yojana for annadata, Lakhpati Didi for Nari Sabalikaran etc. Focused on Indigenization: Government through Atma Nirbhar Bharat Mission focusing on Indigenously developed goods and services for citizens. Infrastructural Upgradation: Expenditure on Bharat Mala, Sagar Mala, Electric Vehicle etc will ease the connectivity and provide employment for millions.

Consonance with achieving the objective of inclusive growth

1. Poverty Eradication: A total of 415 million people moved out of poverty in India within just 15 years from 2005 to 2021. (UN)
2. Financial inclusion: Under JAM trinity more than 20 cr bank accounts opened in a single year.
3. Education Accessibility: The gross enrollment ratio at primary level reached more than 100% and in secondary education it reached around 78%.
4. Improved Health Indicators: 55 cr citizens benefited under Ayushman Bharat scheme that made the health sector accessible for all.

Mainstream and protection of the vulnerable sections: Person with disability act 1995, PM Janman Yojana, Juvenile justice care and protection act, Nari Shakti Adhiniyam etc has been playing an instrumental role in developing inclusivity.

Thus Inclusive development of a Nation depends on its Public Expenditure on Social Services.Effective functioning of this expenditure will ensure Vikshit Bharat encompassing Sabka Saath, Sabka Prayas and Sabka Viswas. Sabka Viswas.

2. What are the causes of persistent high food inflation in India? Comment on the effectiveness of the monetary policy of the RBI to control this type of inflation.

View

Food Inflation is the most alarming threat for a country that pushed millions of its population towards Poverty, Hunger and famine. As per RBI report the food inflation in India reached as high as 8.7% in April 2024 compared to around 6% in 2020.

Causes of persistent high food inflation in India

Cost-Push Inflation

High input cost: Agriculture becoming more Input intensive and the price of fertilizer(specially non urea fertilizer), pesticides, vitamin and seed are rising that leads to increase of food price.

Ex: The price of pesticides increased 42% from 2012 level.

Transportation cost: High transportation cost of food objects due to over dependence of roadways tend to increase the final cost of food products.

Ex: Currently more than 90% of food products are transported through roadways.

Low farm mechanisation: Manual farming due handkerchief size of landholding reduces the farm productivity and increases the cost of farming.

Ex: 70% of Indian agriculture depends on non mechanised farming. Demand- Pull Inflation:

Rising demand:India became the highest populated nation as per UN and there is a sharp rise in share of non farming population in India that leads to rising demand for food grains day by day.

Ex: In 1950 around 70% of India’s workforce engaged in agriculture and now it 48% in 2024.

Government Policies: The Government under MSP provides an assured price for some food grains that leads to inflation of food.
Market distortion: Existence of intermediaries, storage of food grains by private players to intentionally increase the price of food and corruption are one of the major reasons for food inflation in India.

Effectiveness of the monetary policy of the RBI to control this type of inflation

Targeted Inflation management: RBI through effective targeting of headline inflation that include food and fuel can control the food price.

Use of Quantitative tools: RBI uses Liquidity Adjustment Facility, Bank rate, CRR, SLR etc to decrease the money supply in the market to control the Food inflation.
Exchange Rate Management and Imported Food Inflation: In 2021, global food prices surged, especially edible oils. The RBI’s management of the exchange rate helped soften the impact of these global price hikes on domestic food inflation, though not fully.

Issues in the monetary policy of the RBI to control food inflation

Adverse weather and temporary shock induced food inflation: RBI’s monetary policies are ineffective to counter this type of food inflation.

Ex: During floods the price of food rises.

Low compliance with RBI policies: Sometimes there is a mismatch between policies formulated by RBI and actual implementation of these regulations.
External Factors: Disruption in Global supply chain also poses a threat to the RBI’s monetary policies.

Therefore Food Inflation management should be the utmost priority of an economy and effective functioning of RBI’s policies can efficiently control the inflation and pull out its masses from adverse impact of hunger and malnutrition which is in line with SDG 2.

3. What were the factors responsible for the successful implementation of land reforms in some parts of the country? Elaborate.

View

Land reforms refer to government-initiated policies aimed at redistributing land ownership, improving tenancy rights, abolishing intermediaries, and imposing land ceilings to promote equitable distribution. Successful implementation has transformed agrarian societies by enhancing farmer welfare and addressing historical land inequalities.

Factors responsible for the successful implementation of land reforms in some parts of the country:

Strong Political Will and Leadership

Effective land reforms require committed political leadership to drive policy changes and ensure enforcement.
Example: In West Bengal, the Left Front government implemented Operation Barga, strengthening sharecroppers’ rights and ensuring land redistribution.

2. Social Movements and Grassroots Mobilization

Peasant movements and social activism played a crucial role in pressuring governments to implement land reforms.
Example: The Tebhaga Movement in Bengal and Bhoodan Movement by Vinoba Bhave led to voluntary land donations, benefiting landless farmers.

Robust Legal and Institutional Framework

Clear land ceiling laws and efficient legal mechanisms facilitated fair land redistribution.
Example: Kerala’s Land Reform Act ensured land ceiling enforcement and abolished intermediaries.

Administrative Efficiency and Bureaucratic Support

A well-functioning bureaucratic structure enabled smooth implementation of land reform policies.
Example: Tamil Nadu’s land record digitization and streamlined land surveys reduced delays in redistribution.

Decentralized Governance and Local Participation

Involvement of Panchayati Raj institutions ensured community participation and transparency in land redistribution.
Example: In West Bengal, local panchayats actively monitored land reforms, ensuring equitable distribution.

Land Tenure Security and Agricultural Productivity:

Providing legal security to tenants encouraged investment in land and improved productivity.
Example: Andhra Pradesh’s land ceiling laws protected tenant rights, leading to increased agricultural output.

Awareness and Legal Education Campaigns :

Awareness programs informed farmers about their rights, ensuring effective demand for reforms.

Challenges Hindering Land Reforms

Shifting political priorities due to weak political will in Bihar led to incomplete reforms.
Bureaucratic inefficiency and Corruption such as Red tape and poor land record management caused delays.
Wealthy landowners used legal loopholes to retain land.
Legal complexities such as prolonged court cases hindered policy enforcement.
Poor documentation due to Outdated Land Records obstructed redistribution.
Marginalized groups faced discrimination as a result of Caste & Class Barriers.
Farmers were uninformed about their rights due to lack of awareness.

In conclusion, Land reforms in India have seen mixed success, hindered by political, bureaucratic, and social challenges. Strong political will, transparent governance, and modernized land records are essential for equitable land distribution. A holistic approach integrating legal, economic, and administrative reforms is key to achieving rural development and social justice.

4. Explain the role of millets for ensuring health and nutritional security in India.

View

In 2023 the United Nations declared the year the ‘International year of millets with the aim to increase awareness of the different benefits of millet crops, in terms of food security, nutrition and ensuring health in India.

Millets (coarse grains) are a group of small-seeded grasses grown as cereal and fodder crops. They are raised mainly as rain-fed Kharif crops (sowed with the onset of the monsoons) in India.

There are 16 significant millet varieties, including Sorghum (Jowar), Pearl Millet (Bajra), Finger Millet (Ragi), Minor Millets , Proso Millet, Kodo Millet (Kodo) etc.

India ranks 5th among global exporters, having exported $ 64.28 million in 2022-23 alone and is planning to be among the top three exporters by 2025.

Role of Millets for ensuring health and nutritional security.

Ensuring Health:

They are naturally gluten free and have a low glycemic index helping to maintain steady blood sugar levels and reduce the risk of diabetes.
They are rich in dietary fibre, which promotes digestive health, reduces the risk of colon cancer and age in weight loss.
Millets such as ragi (finger millet) are rich in calcium and vitamin D, essential for maintaining strong bones and preventing osteoporosis,
Millets are rich in -carotene and B vitamins, notably riboflavin, niacin, and folic acid comparable to rice and wheat. It has antioxidant properties that enable them to provide a balanced diet and are very nutritious.

Nutritional security:

According to the Nutritive Value of Indian food,NIN, ICMR 2023, millet contains energy (331 kcal), protein (12.3g), carbohydrate(70g). Fats (4.3g). Fibre (8) along with vitamins and calcium per100 gm
According to a study conducted by ICRISAT, millets boost the physiological growth and development in children and adolescents, when rice is replaced by millets in standard meals.
1. Example: Andhra Pradesh’s millet based school meals boost nutrition.
They alleviate hidden hunger which means tackling widespread micronutrient deficiencies.

For instance, the World Health Organization estimates that nearly 30% of Indian women (15-49 years) suffer from iron deficiency anemia.

Millets are key to India’s nutritional security, sustainable agriculture, and economic growth. Reviving their consumption through policy support, awareness campaigns, and public programs can combat malnutrition and promote food security. Strengthening production, ensuring fair pricing, and changing perceptions will be crucial for integrating millets into mainstream diets, paving the way for a healthier and more resilient India.

5. What is the present world scenario of intellectual property rights with respect to life materials? Despite India being second in the world to file patents, only a few are commercialized. Explain the reasons behind this less commercialization.

View

As per WIPO, Intellectual property (IP) refers to creations of the mind, such as inventions; literary and artistic works; designs; and symbols, names and images used in commerce and the Intellectual property rights (IPR) are the legal privileges granted to the inventor or creator to safeguard their intellectual work.

The present world scenario of intellectual property rights with respect to life materials.

Biotechnology: Patents on life materials, especially in biotechnological innovations like gene editing, are essential for protecting groundbreaking technologies and driving market leadership.

Ex: CRISPR-Cas9 technology patent by US

Global Compliance with TRIPS: The TRIPS agreement requires WTO members to uphold minimum IPR standards while allowing flexibility to protect public health.
Protection of Indigenous Knowledge: Countries are increasingly safeguarding traditional knowledge to prevent biopiracy through initiatives like digital databases.

Ex: Traditional Knowledge Digital Library initiative in India.

International Legal Frameworks – Global agreements such as the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement under the World Trade Organization (WTO) provide a baseline for IPR protection, including life materials.

Rise in Biopiracy and Ethical Concerns – There are frequent cases of biopiracy, where multinational corporations patent biological resources or traditional knowledge from developing countries without fair compensation.

Ex: Patents on neem, turmeric, and basmati rice.

Reasons behind less commercialization of patents despite India being second in the world to file patents.

Low research and development: India spent only 0.6% of GDP in R&D whereas developed countries like the USA Spent around 4% of GDP.

Infrastructural Deficit: India’s technological and incubation infrastructure is inadequate to support startups and innovators.
Industry Academia Mismatch: Only a few schools and universities are equipped with advanced technologies to research and meet the demand.
Weak Intellectual Property Right regulation ecosystem: According to Biotechnology Innovation Organization (BIO), about 55% of biotech companies reported that regulatory hurdles are significant barriers to bringing products to market.
Foreign Domination in Critical Sectors: MNCs dominate patent commercialization in biotechnology and pharmaceuticals, while Indian firms struggle due to high capital requirements and regulatory challenges.

Way Ahead:

Atal Innovation Mission (AIM) for providing funding and support for innovation hubs, and incubation centers.
National Intellectual Property Rights Policy 2016 to create robust and secure IP rights.

India needs to effectively address these challenges to reap the dividend of patent commercialisation and dominate the international market to achieve its vision of a 5 trillion economy.

6. What technology is being employed for electronic toll collection on highways? What are its advantages and limitations?

View

The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has been emphasising on electronic toll collection to ensure a cashless and more efficient toll collection system across the country for hassle free movement of citizens.

The primary technology used for Electronic Toll Collection (ETC) on highways in India is RFID-based FASTag System introduced in 2014 and is made compulsory for all vehicles by the government of India.

Advantages of RFID- based FASTag System

Seamless and Fast Transactions – Vehicles can pass through toll plazas without stopping, reducing congestion and travel time.
Lower Operational Costs: ETC requires fewer staff at toll booths, leading to cost savings for toll operators.
Better Revenue Collection: Automated systems reduce human error and the risk of cash leakage or fraud, ensuring better toll revenue management.
Eliminate corruption and the free rider problem: Before installation of electronic toll collection, the free rider problem was a major concern for NHAI that cost a huge revenue loss.The FASTag system will eradicate these concerns.

Limitation of RFID-based FASTag System

Initial Cost and Adoption Issues – Some users face difficulties in obtaining and linking FASTags properly.
Technical Glitches – Malfunctioning RFID readers or improper tag placement can cause transaction failures.
Limited Coverage for Non-FASTag Vehicles – Vehicles without RFID tags still require manual toll collection, causing partial congestion.
Dependency on Network Connectivity – Poor internet or banking server failures can delay transactions.

Road is the major medium of transportation that accounts for around 90% of passenger transportation and hence the RFID system is very necessary for ensuring seamless movement of people and attaining transit oriented development for india.

7. Industrial pollution of river water is a significant environmental issue in India. Discuss various mitigation measures and government initiatives to address this problem.

View

Industrial discharge of toxic chemicals, heavy metals, microplastic into rivers adversely impacting the river ecosystem which affects more than 40% of Indian rivers as per CPCB report.

Impact Industrial pollution of river water on the environment

Enter Micro Plastic into the food chain: Industrial discharge of micro plastic into the rivers can impact the whole food chain causing cardiovascular and respiratory disease to humans also.
Multiplied soil and air pollution: Water pollution has a direct impact on soil and air health, degrading soil quality and leave toxic materials into the air.
Impact on Aquatic Life: High levels of toxicity in the Ganges has severely affected the population of the endangered Ganges river dolphin.

Mitigation measures to this problem

Efficient management of industrial discharge: Strict regulation and continuous monitoring of industries and addressed this problem.
Effluent Treatment Plants (ETPs) and Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs): Mandating industries to set up on-site ETPs to treat wastewater before discharge into rivers.
Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) Policy: Encouraging industries to adopt ZLD technologies, which ensure that all wastewater is treated and recycled within the plant.
Declaration of ecologically sensitive zones: River banks near to the industries should be declared as ecologically sensitive zones.
Encourage industries to adopt green technologies and 3R method( Reduce, Reuse and Recycle)

Government Initiatives:

Namami Gange Programme: Over 150 sewage treatment plants (STPs) have been sanctioned under this program to improve the water quality of the Ganga.
National Green Tribunal (NGT): The NGT has mandated the closure of 123 industries for non-compliance with pollution standards in various river basins.
River Rejuvenation Programs: The Narmada Seva Mission launched by the Madhya Pradesh government focuses on afforestation and pollution control to restore the Narmada River’s health.
Pollution Control Boards (CPCB & SPCBs): Central and state pollution control boards regulate industrial discharges and set water quality standards. Regular inspections and pollution audits are conducted to ensure compliance.

There is a need for a multi-pronged approach involving technological advancements, stricter enforcement, corporate responsibility, and community participation for efficient management of Industrial discharge and sustainable river conservation in India.

8. What role do environmental NGOs and activists play in influencing Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) outcomes for major projects in India? Cite four examples with all important details. (Answer in 150 words)

View

Environmental NGOs and activists play a crucial role in shaping Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) outcomes in India by advocating for sustainable development, ensuring compliance with environmental laws, and amplifying community concerns. Through legal interventions, public awareness campaigns, they influence policy decisions and prevent environmentally harmful projects, strengthening India’s environmental governance framework.

Roles played by environmental NGOs and activists in influencing Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA):

Raising Awareness & Community Mobilization – NGOs educate communities on environmental and social impacts, empowering them to engage in the EIA process.
1. Example: NBA mobilized locals against the Sardar Sarovar Dam.
Facilitating Public Participation – NGOs ensure diverse voices are heard in EIA hearings.
1. Example: Local groups enabled public consultations for the Kochi-Mangaluru Gas Pipeline.
Advocating Policy Reforms – NGOs push for stricter environmental regulations.
1. Example: Protests against EIA Notification 2020 led to increased scrutiny of amendments.
Ensuring Compliance & Reporting Violations – NGOs monitor projects for regulatory adherence, exposing violations.
1. Example: CSE identified EIA shortcomings in the Mathurapur Water Supply Project.
Post-Approval Monitoring – NGOs track projects for compliance with promised safeguards.
1. Example: Save Mon Region Federation monitored the Nyamjang Chu Hydel Project.
Independent Research & Assessments – NGOs conduct studies to highlight overlooked ecological risks.
1. Example: Greenpeace India exposed pollution risks from a Tamil Nadu coal plant

Examples of environmental NGOs and activists influencing Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) outcomes :

Sl no.	Examples.	NGOS/Activists Involved.	Impact.
	Vedanta Mining Project – Niyamgiri Hills	Survival International and local activists	Activists, alongside NGOs, opposed Vedanta’s bauxite mining project in Odisha, citing threats to the sacred lands of the Dongria Kondh tribe and the local ecosystem. In 2013, the Supreme Court of India upheld the tribe’s right to decide the project’s fate.
	Himdhara and Hydropower Projects in Himachal Pradesh	Himdhara Environment Research and Action Collective	Himdhara conducted independent assessments, exposing flaws in EIAs related to seismic risks, water flow disruptions, and the cumulative impact of multiple hydropower projects. Their advocacy led to the redesign of the Luhri Hydroelectric Project, reducing its capacity to minimize environmental damage.
	Koodankulam Nuclear Plant	People’s Movement Against Nuclear Energy (PMANE) and S.P. Udayakumar	They mobilized large-scale protests, citing safety and environmental concerns. Their efforts led to increased scrutiny and the implementation of additional safety measures before the plant became operational.
4.	POSCO Steel Plant (Odisha)	Posco Pratirodh Sangram Samiti, Greenpeace India	NGOs and activists organized protests, filed legal challenges, and highlighted gaps in the EIA process. Due to sustained opposition and regulatory hurdles, environmental clearance was suspended, and POSCO withdrew from the project in 2017.

Environmental NGOs and activists ensure transparent EIAs by advocating sustainability, monitoring compliance, and promoting public participation. Their efforts drive policy reforms, strengthen accountability, and balance development with environmental protection. As ecological challenges grow, their continued engagement is crucial for sustainable governance and safeguarding natural resources for future generations.

9. Explain how narco-terrorism has emerged as a serious threat across the country. Suggest measures to counter narco-terrorism.

View

Narco-terrorism is a type of organized crime that uses drug trafficking as a funding mechanism and network routes to spread terror activities among masses and challenge the sovereignty of a nation.Porous borders and unstable neighborhoods have been acting as breeding ground for narco-terrorism in India.

Narco-terrorism has emerged as a serious threat across the country

High rate of drug consumption among youth: Around 3% of Indian youth are drug addicted that has turned demographic dividend into demographic disaster.
Porous Border and adjacent to the golden triangle and golden crescent:

India has a proximity with major drug producing regions like golden triangle and golden crescent.

Use of Advanced Smuggling Methods: use of drones and maritime routes to smuggle drugs into India, especially across the Punjab and Gujarat borders.

Ex: According to the Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB), more than 100 instances of drone incursions reported in the India-Pakistan border alone in 2023, with most carrying heroin

Collaboration with State Actors: Pakistani state agencies are reportedly involved in facilitating narcoterrorism by supporting cross-border drug trafficking that funds terrorism in India.
Funding to terror outfit: North- east insurgency groups receive most of its funding from drug trafficking creating a hostile situation in the region.

Ex: Manipur violence triggered by illicit drug trafficking.

Measures to counter narco-terrorism.

Strengthening border security: Continuous monitoring and surveillance of borders should be prioritized along with enhancing the strength of border security forces.

Ex: Establishment of integrated theater command along Indo -Pak border.

Strict enforcement of laws like the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985.
Border areas development programmes, like the Vibrant village programme should be effectively implemented.
International Cooperation: Collaborate with Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Afghanistan through bilateral and multilateral platforms like SAARC and BIMSTEC.
Community participation: Establish comprehensive drug rehabilitation and de-addiction centers, particularly in regions with high drug abuse rates like Punjab.

Thus Narco terrorism poses significant internal security challenges to the country impacting the main dividend of India which is Youth. Hence there is a need for a comprehensive mechanism to deal with this serious threat.

10. Describe the context and salient features of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023.

View

Government of India passed the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 to protect personal data while promoting the digital economy.It aims at establishment of a secure and stable cyber space for world’s largest democracy.

Context of the Digital personal data protection act, 2023

Data theft: Stealing someone’s personal data and using it for personal gain has been a major concern in India and the world.To control the data piracy Government of India enacted Digital Personal Data Protection Act.
India emerging as Internet capital of the world: India has the largest internet users with more than 800 million active internet users that necessitate a data protection act.
Cyber security threat: India among the 3rd most attractive destinations for cyber criminals and more than 70% of Indian Business facing cyber threat like Ransomware.
Global Trends: India’s DPDP Act mirrors global efforts to regulate data processing, such as the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).
Right to privacy has become the fundamental right under K.S Puttaswamy Judgement that mandates the government to enact a data protection act.

Salient Feature of the Digital personal data protection act, 2023

Identification of stakeholders: Data Principal (DP), Data Fiduciary, Data Processor
Penalties for Non-compliance:The Act imposes financial penalties for non-compliance, ranging from Rs. 10,000 to Rs. 250 crores, but does not impose criminal penalties
Right to Correction and Erasure: Individuals can request the correction or deletion of their personal data if it is inaccurate or no longer necessary.
Data Processing with Consent: Data can only be collected with clear, informed consent from individuals.
Data Protection Authority: A dedicated Data Protection Authority will oversee the implementation and enforcement of the Act.

The Digital personal Data Protection Act is a revolutionary step to secure the cyber space and effective implementation of this act is essential to maximize the benefit of Digital India.

11.Discuss the merits and demerits of the four labour codes in the context of labour market reforms in India. What has been the progress so far?

View

The Parliament enacted new Labour Codes that condense the 29 existing laws into four main codes: the Code on Wages, the Industrial Relations Code, the Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, and the Social Security code.

Merits of the Four Labour Codes

Simplification & Consolidation – Merges 29 labour laws into 4 codes, reducing complexity and compliance burden.
Uniform Wage Structure – Introduces a national minimum wage, ensuring fair remuneration
Easier Resolution of Industrial Disputes: The Industrial Relations Code mandates the formation of Grievance Redressal Committees for companies with 20 or more workers and allows faster resolution through tribunals.
Focus on Social Security: Expansion of social security coverage to previously excluded workers like migrants, gig, and platform workers.
For example: Gig and platform workers are now legally recognised for social security benefits under the Code on Social Security, 2020.
Gender Equality – The Code of Wages prohibits discrimination in remuneration and recruitment of employees for work of similar nature.

Demerits of the Four Labour Codes

Impact on Informal Sector Workers: Although designed to benefit all workers, the Codes may disproportionately impact informal sector workers who are often underrepresented.
Lack of Uniformity Across States: Labour is a concurrent subject in India, this could lead to lack of uniformity in implementation across different regions.
Concerns Over Workers’ Rights: The codes mandate a 60 days prior notice to organised a Strike by workers that violate their right to strike.
Limited Awareness and Implementation: Lack of awareness, particularly in the informal sector, limits the impact of these reforms.

Ex: Informal sector workers in rural areas are less informed about their rights under the Social Security Code, 2020.

Provisions on fixed term employment :unequal bargaining powers between the worker and employer could affect the rights of workers as the power to renew contracts lies with the employer.

Progress so far

Publication of draft rules: over 20 states have published draft rules, but final notifications are still awaited in most cases.
Centre has already enforced few provisions like Central Advisory Board and establishment of an employee’s and his family members’ identities through respective Aadhaar numbers.
Digital Initiatives: The introduction of online portals for migrant workers and gig workers is a significant step towards inclusion, but adoption has been slow.
Stakeholder Consultations: Extensive consultations have been conducted with trade unions, employers, and states, though consensus remains elusive.
Partial Implementation: A lack of awareness among both workers and employers has hindered the effective implementation of the Codes

The four labour codes will enable a worker friendly environment that will boost employment generation along with economic development and ensure “ease of doing business “ in the country.

12. What is the need for expanding regional air connectivity in India? Discuss the achievements of the government’s UDAN Scheme.

View

Regional air connectivity is a critical component to ensure ease of connectivity with sustainable and inclusive economic growth eradicating the geographical barrier and time overrun. Government introduced the UDAN scheme to achieve this goal in an effective manner.

Need for expanding regional air connectivity in India

Boosting Tourism and Trade: Better air connectivity supports the growth of tourism and trade by connecting lesser-known destinations.

Ex: Increased tourist footfall in places of North-East and Jammu & kashmir

Improve Accessibility to Remote Areas: Regional air connectivity bridges the gap between remote, difficult-to-reach areas and urban centers, improving access to essential services like healthcare, education, and trade.

Ex: Accessibility to Andaman and Nicobar Island, Lakshadweep etc.

Disaster Management and Relief: Regions prone to natural disasters, such as floods, earthquakes, and landslides, benefit from rapid response and evacuation efforts when accessible by air.
Decouple with Roadways: In India Roadway contributes around 90% of passenger transportation and more than 60% of freight transport which led to high traffic congestion.
Encouraging Investments – Businesses benefit from improved logistics and connectivity, attracting more investments

Challenges in expanding regional air connectivity in India

Infrastructure Gaps: Many small airports lack runways, terminals, and night-landing facilities and poor last-mile connectivity with roads and railways.
Financial Viability: Regional routes often have low passenger demand, making operations unprofitable.

High Operating Costs: Aviation turbine fuel (ATF) costs in India are among the highest globally and limited maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO) facilities, increasing dependency on foreign servicing.

Regulatory & Policy Challenges: Complex bureaucratic clearances for new routes and airport development..
Weather & Geographic Constraints: Operations in hilly regions, coastal areas, and islands are affected by bad weather, terrain limitations, and airstrip constraints.

Achievements of the government’s UDAN Scheme.

As per Ministry of Civil Aviation, UDAN scheme is operating over 2.8 lakh flights and serving 1.43 crore passengers as of August 31, 2024.
Increased Regional Connectivity: The scheme has launched operations on 583 routes, linking 86 airports, including 13 heliports and 2 water aerodromes.
Affordable Air Travel: India has emerged as the third-largest domestic aviation market, with the total number of air passengers handled at Indian airports reaching 37.6 crore in FY24—a year-on-year increase of 15%.
Introduction of New Air Routes: The scheme introduced several new air routes linking underserved regions.
Revival of Underutilized Airports: The scheme focuses on reviving under-served and unserved airports, enhancing regional connectivity.

Ex: Over 100 airports and heliports have been operationalized under UDAN (MoCA, 2023)

The UDAN Scheme has been pivotal in expanding air connectivity across India, making air travel affordable and accessible. Improving infrastructure, ensuring adequate funding, and boosting private sector involvement will be key to realizing the full potential of regional air connectivity.

13.What are the major challenges faced by the Indian irrigation system in recent times? State measures taken by the government for efficient irrigation management.

View

Irrigation is the most critical component of the agricultural sector that can double the production of crops from 1.1 ton per hectare up to 4.8 ton per hectare. According to the 11th agricultural census 52% of the agricultural land of India is irrigated.

Benefits of irrigation

Augmented farmer income: Irrigation will help India to achieve its goal of doubling farming income.
Reduce the cases of farmers suicide: As per NCRB data around 40,000 farmer suicide anually.
Irrigation will enable farmers to grow crops in water-stressed regions of India.

Major challenges faced by the Indian irrigation system in recent times

Groundwater exploitation: According to CGWA, India extracts nearly 25% of global groundwater annually. Punjab and Haryana groundwater tables deplete by 33% in the last two decades.
Inefficient water use: Agriculture consumes more than 90% of total water but contributes only 18% to the gdp.
Undiversified irrigation methods: Around 60% irrigation in India is based on tubewell irrigation and there is only 30% canal irrigation in India.
Skewed distribution of Irrigation: Irrigation is mostly concentrated in the north- western part of the country and the irrigation penetration in north- east India is very less.
Low Adoption of Modern Techniques: As per ICAR, only 6% of India’s irrigated land uses drip or sprinkler systems, mainly due to high initial costs and lack of awareness.

Measures taken by Government for efficient irrigation management

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana: Under this scheme the government is promoting drip irrigation technique that has a potential to increase the water used efficiency up to 90%.
Command Area Development & Water Management (CADWM): Improves irrigation efficiency by repairing and upgrading canal systems across 17 million hectares (CWC).
Installation of AI in drip irrigation to increase the water use efficiency.
Interlinking of rivers: Government initiative interlinking of river projects to distribute water to the water stressed regions of india.

Ex: Ken- Betwa river linking project

National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA): to promote sustainable agriculture practices, enhance water use efficiency, and encourage adoption of new irrigation technologies.

More step that can be taken:

1. Community participation: Government through decentralized approach can encourage communities to engage in adoption of efficient water use methods.

Revival of traditional practices: Traditional methods like the Ruza model of Nagaland, Ahar-pyne system of Bihar can be used as model techniques.

Thus effective implementation of these measures is very much essential to pluck out the issues from the irrigation system of India and to make agriculture viable, profitable and sustainable along with ensuring food and water security for all.

14. Elucidate the importance of buffer stocks for stabilizing agricultural prices in India. What are the challenges associated with the storage of buffer stock? Discuss.

View

Buffer stocks play a vital role in stabilizing agricultural prices in India by ensuring the availability of essential commodities during shortages or price volatility. Introduced during the 4th Five Year Plan, buffer stocks, primarily managed by the Food Corporation of India (FCI), help stabilize prices, ensure food security, and protect both farmers and consumers from market fluctuations.

IMPORTANCE OF BUFFER STOCKS FOR STABILIZING AGRICULTURAL PRICES:

PRICE STABILITY: Buffer stocks stabilize prices by releasing stocks during scarcity and procuring excess during bumper harvests, ensuring fair prices for farmers, affordable food for consumers, and controlling inflation during price surges.

1. 1. Example: The Government released 3 million tonnes of wheat in 2023 from buffer stocks to stabilize the market amidst rising prices.

FOOD SECURITY: Buffer stocks ensure food security by maintaining reserves for emergencies, stabilizing prices.

It ensures availability through the Public Distribution System(PDS) during poor harvests, natural disasters, or crises, benefiting vulnerable communities.

1. 1. Example: During the COVID-19 pandemic, buffer stocks provided 100 million tons of food grains to 75 crore beneficiaries under the Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana (PMGKAY) in 2020-21.
2. INFLATION CONTROL: Helps control food inflation by releasing stocks during peak demand periods, thereby preventing price surges.
  1. Example: The Government released pulses from buffer stocks to stabilize prices amidst rising inflation.
3. MARKET INTERVENTION: The government utilizes buffer stocks through schemes like the Open Market Sale Scheme (OMSS) to intervene in the market, shielding both producers and consumers from severe price fluctuations.

Farmer’s Income Stability: The Minimum Support Price (MSP) mechanism, connected to buffer stock procurement, offers income stability to farmers.

Example: In 2022-23, the government procured 57.65 million tonnes of wheat at MSP, ensuring farmers’ financial security.

CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH THE STORAGE OF BUFFER STOCK:

Inadequate Storage Infrastructure: Lack of modern storage facilities causes significant grain loss due to spoilage, pests, and moisture.

1. According to the FCI, 7-10% of stored grains were lost annually due to inadequate storage facilities in 2022.
High Maintenance Costs: Storage costs, including procurement and transportation, strain government finances, with ₹40,000 crore spent annually (2023).
Overstocking and Spoilage: Excess procurement leads to overstocking, resulting in rotting grains. In 2021, 6 lakh tonnes were wasted as per CAG Report.
Regional Imbalance: Storage facilities are concentrated in a few states, causing logistical challenges and high transport costs according to NITI Aayog, 2022.
Quality Degradation: Outdated storage methods lead to reduced grain quality and post-harvest losses, with only 20% stored in modern silos.
Logistical Challenges: Uneven distribution of storage facilities increases transportation costs, delays movement, and affects food availability in remote areas.

Buffer stocks play a crucial role in stabilizing agricultural prices and ensuring food security. However, issues like inadequate storage, high costs, and wastage remain challenges. Modernization, digital integration, and public-private partnerships are essential to improving efficiency, reducing losses, and making buffer stock management more sustainable and effective in the long run.

15. The world is facing an acute shortage of clean and safe freshwater. What are the alternative technologies which can solve this crisis? Briefly discuss any three such technologies citing their key merits and demerits.

View

The UN Water Development Report 2023 highlights that 2–3 billion people face water shortages, with UNICEF warning that by 2025, half the world’s population may experience water scarcity. Over-extraction of aquifers and rising demand threaten global freshwater supplies. Innovative technologies are emerging to address this crisis and ensure water security.

The world is facing an acute shortage of clean and safe freshwater:

Global Water Scarcity and Lack of access to clean water:

1. 1. According to the UN (2023), 2.3 billion people live in water-stressed countries, with 733 million facing severe water scarcity.
  2. WHO and UNICEF (2022) report that nearly 2 billion people lack safely managed drinking water, while 771 million struggle with basic drinking water access.
2. Climate Change:
  1. According to the UNDP, Intense water scarcity could displace 700 million people by 2030, driven by droughts and extreme weather.
  2. By 2050, 52% of the global population will face water stress due to climate change.

Water Pollution:

1. Industrial waste, pesticides, and sewage pollution have severely contaminated freshwater sources, reducing safe water availability.
2. Example: Over 80% of global wastewater is untreated, contaminating freshwater sources (UNESCO)
Agriculture Demand:
1. Agriculture accounts for 70% of global freshwater consumption, depleting water sources as per FAO, 2021.
2. By 2050, global water demand is expected to rise by 55% due to increasing agricultural, industrial, and domestic needs according to OECD.

ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGIES AVAILABLE TO SOLVE WATER CRISIS:

Solar-Powered Water Filtration:

1. 1. It purifies water by filtering out pathogens and metals using solar energy. It offers fast and efficient purification with a passive, gravity-based filtration method.

Desalination Systems:

1. 1. Desalination extracts salt from seawater to produce freshwater, commonly used in the Middle East.
  2. Recent advancements, such as larger membranes, have reduced energy consumption and operational costs while increasing water production efficiency.

Nanotechnology:

1. 1. Nanotechnology offers cost-effective water purification by removing contaminants at the molecular level.
  2. Carbon nanotube (CNT), the most common water purification techniques in the nanotech space, effectively removes organic, inorganic, and biological compounds, making water safe for drinking.

Bioaugmentation for Wastewater Treatment:

1. Bioaugmentation uses microorganisms to break down wastewater contaminants, transforming it into usable water or fertilizer through a multi-step process.
Automatic Variable Filtration (AVF) :
1. An energy-efficient, power-free method that uses upward influent flow through filter media, ideal for wastewater treatment and desalination.

Discussing the technologies citing their merits and demerits:

Desalination: Converts seawater into potable water using methods like reverse osmosis and thermal distillation, addressing freshwater scarcity. For instance, Israel’s Sorek plant provides 20% of the country’s drinking water.

MERITS	DEMERITS
1.Desalination provides access to a virtually inexhaustible source of water from oceans, ensuring a constant freshwater supply.	1. Desalination requires significant energy, leading to high costs and increased carbon emissions if powered by fossil fuels.
2.It is independent of rainfall, making it unaffected by climate change, droughts, or fluctuating weather patterns.	2.The disposal of concentrated brine can harm marine ecosystems, disrupting biodiversity and local aquatic life
3.Desalination can produce significant quantities of freshwater, supporting urban needs and supplying coastal regions with essential drinking water.	3.Desalination plants require substantial capital investment for construction and maintenance, making the technology costly and resource-intensive.

Atmospheric Water Generation: Extracts water from air moisture through condensation, either by cooling air below the dew point or using desiccants. It is increasingly used in arid or drought-prone areas.

MERITS	DEMERITS
1.Can generate water anywhere, even in remote areas, without relying on surface or groundwater sources.	1.Limited water production in areas with low humidity, reducing effectiveness in dry climates.
2.Helps preserve aquifers and groundwater reserves by providing an alternative water source	2.High upfront costs for installation and equipment, making it less affordable.
3.Enables on-demand water production, minimizing storage challenges and ensuring immediate availability.	3.High energy consumption for cooling and dehumidification processes, impacting efficiency and sustainability.

Automated Variable Filtration: Refers to advanced filtration systems designed to automatically adjust the filtration process based on the varying conditions of the fluid being filtered.

MERITS	DEMERITS
1.Reduces energy consumption by minimizing the need for additional filtration or power-intensive systems.	1.May not be suitable for large-scale municipal applications due to capacity limitations.
2.Lowers maintenance costs and operational downtime, making it a cost-effective solution.	2.The upfront installation costs can be significant, making it a less affordable option for some regions.
3.Ensures continuous and reliable filtration with minimal manual intervention, improving efficiency.	3.The upfront installation costs can be significant, making it a less affordable option for some regions.

In conclusion, An integrated approach combining innovative technologies, such as desalination, wastewater recycling, and atmospheric water generation, alongside strong policies and community engagement, is vital to addressing freshwater scarcity. These efforts will ensure sustainable water access, contributing to water security and achieving SDG 6 for future generations.

16. What are asteroids? How real is the threat of them causing extinction of life? What strategies have been developed to prevent such a catastrophe?

View

Asteroids are rocky remnants from the early solar system, mainly orbiting the Sun in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. These celestial bodies vary in size and provide valuable insights into the solar system’s formation. While most asteroids are small, some, known as Near-Earth Objects (NEOs), pose potential risks to Earth due to their proximity, with the possibility of catastrophic collisions, as seen in past mass extinction events.

Threats of Asteroids Causing Extinction:

Historical Precedent: The extinction of dinosaurs 66 million years ago is believed to be caused by a large asteroid impact, such as the Chicxulub crater event.
Existential Threat: Asteroids larger than 1 km in diameter could trigger mass extinctions by creating climate disruptions, wildfires, tsunamis, and prolonged winters.
Frequency of Large Impacts: While small asteroid impacts are common, large catastrophic events occur every few million years, making them rare but highly impactful.
Near-Earth Objects (NEOs): Thousands of NEOs are tracked, with a small percentage posing significant threats to Earth’s safety.
Climate Effects: An asteroid impact can result in the ejection of dust and debris, creating a “nuclear winter” effect that disrupts global ecosystems.
Uncertainty in Prediction: Current technology struggles to track all potential threats, as evidenced by the undetected 2013 Chelyabinsk meteor, which injured over 1,000 people.
Impact Consequences: Even small asteroids, such as Bennu, can release catastrophic energy, equivalent to the detonation of 1.4 billion tons of TNT, causing significant global damage.

STRATEGIES DEVELOPED TO PREVENT A CATASTROPHE:

Detection and Monitoring: NASA’s Planetary Defense Coordination Office (PDCO) tracks hazardous asteroids using telescopes like Pan-STARRS and NEOWISE, with plans for advanced systems like the Near-Earth Object Surveyor to improve monitoring.
Deflection Missions: Methods such as the Kinetic Impactor, demonstrated by NASA’s DART mission in 2022, aim to alter an asteroid’s orbit. The Gravity Tractor method, still under research, would use a spacecraft’s gravitational pull to gradually change an asteroid’s path.
Nuclear Explosions: In extreme cases, nuclear explosions could be used to deflect or fragment an asteroid. However, this method carries risks due to potential unpredictability in fragmentation and fallout.
International Cooperation: Global collaboration, supported by organizations like the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, strengthens planetary defense through data sharing, coordinated responses, and joint mitigation strategies.
Early Warning Systems: Networks like the International Asteroid Warning Network provide early alerts, enabling timely responses, including evacuation of impact zones if necessary.
Technological Advancements: Enhanced radar and telescope technologies, such as the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope, improve asteroid tracking, boosting preparedness for potential threats.
Legislation and Policy: International agencies and national bodies, including NASA’s PDCO and ISRO, work on policies to ensure a unified approach to planetary defense and asteroid threat management.

In conclusion, While asteroid impacts capable of causing mass extinction are rare, their potential consequences require ongoing vigilance and preparedness. Continued advancements in monitoring, tracking, and mitigation strategies, supported by international cooperation and missions like OSIRIS-REx and DART, are vital for safeguarding Earth from cosmic threats and ensuring long-term planetary safety.

17. What is disaster resilience? How is it determined? Describe various elements of a resilience framework. Also mention the global targets of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030).

View

The Hyogo Framework for Action (2005-2015) defines disaster resilience as a community’s capacity to resist, absorb, adapt, and recover from hazards while maintaining essential functions. Strengthening disaster resilience is crucial for minimizing socio-economic losses and ensuring sustainable development, as emphasized in the Sendai Framework (2015-2030).

Determination of Disaster Resilience:

Effective and Swift Recovery – Faster rebuilding efforts after disasters indicate higher resilience, such as Kerala’s rapid recovery following the 2018 floods.
Community Involvement and Awareness – Engaging local populations in disaster preparedness efforts strengthens response mechanisms, as seen in Uttarakhand’s landslide mitigation strategies.
Adaptability to Emerging Threats – Resilience depends on the ability to address evolving risks, including climate change and urbanization, through proactive measures.
Robust Policies and Infrastructure – Implementing strong policies and constructing resilient infrastructure, such as Japan’s earthquake-resistant buildings, significantly reduces disaster impacts.
Efficient Recovery and Rehabilitation – A structured recovery plan, as seen in post-Hurricane Katrina efforts, ensures communities can rebuild and restore functionality after disasters.

Various Elements of a Resilience Framework:

Risk Identification and Assessment: Understanding hazards, vulnerabilities, and sector-specific risks to develop effective mitigation strategies.
Infrastructure Resilience: Designing disaster-resistant structures, such as cyclone shelters in Odisha, to minimize damage.
Preparedness and Planning: Implementing early warning systems, public education, and strategic disaster response plans.
Institutional Coordination: Ensuring collaboration among governments, agencies, and NGOs for efficient disaster management, as seen in India’s NDMA framework.
Community Engagement and Social Resilience: Empowering local communities through education, livelihood support, and participatory decision-making, as exemplified by Gujarat’s Self-Help Groups post-2001 earthquake.
Recovery and Reconstruction: Focusing on long-term rebuilding efforts, including psychosocial support and improved infrastructure standards.

Global Targets of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030):

To support the assessment of global progress in achieving the outcome and goal of the Sendai Framework, seven global targets have been agreed.

Substantially reduce global disaster mortality by 2030, aiming to lower average per 100,000 global mortality between 2020 and 2030 compared to 2005–2015;
Substantially reduce the number of affected people globally by 2030, aiming to lower the average global figure per 100,000 between 2020 and 2030 compared to 2005–2015;
Reduce direct disaster economic loss in relation to global gross domestic product by 2030;
Substantially reduce disaster damage to critical infrastructure and disruption of basic services, among them health and educational facilities, including through developing their resilience by 2030;
Substantially increase the number of countries with national and local disaster risk reduction strategies by 2020;
Substantially enhance international cooperation to developing countries through adequate and sustainable support to complement their national actions for implementation of the framework by 2030;
Substantially increase the availability of and access to multi-hazard early warning systems and disaster risk information and assessments to the people by 2030.

Building disaster resilience requires innovation, collaboration, and integration into development. Strengthening infrastructure, governance, and community engagement under global frameworks like Sendai can reduce risks and ensure sustainable recovery, safeguarding lives, livelihoods, and the environment from future disasters.

18. Flooding in urban areas is an emerging climate-induced disaster. Discuss the causes of this disaster. Mention the features of two such major floods in the last two decades in India. Describe the policies and frameworks in India that aim at tackling such floods.

View

Urban flooding, a growing climate-induced disaster in India, results from heavy rainfall, poor drainage, and rapid urbanization. Climate change has intensified extreme weather, increasing flood frequency and severity. These floods disrupt infrastructure, cause economic losses, and threaten lives, highlighting the urgent need for effective policies and resilient urban planning to mitigate their impact.

Causes of Urban Flooding:

Natural causes:

Cyclones and Storm Surges: Extreme weather events bring heavy rainfall and strong winds, leading to coastal flooding.
E.g., Cyclone Tauktae caused severe flooding in Mumbai (2021).
Monsoon Bursts: Intense rainfall over a short duration overwhelms drainage systems.
E.g., Mumbai received 37 inches of rainfall in 24 hours in 2005, causing widespread flooding.
Cloudbursts: Sudden, high-intensity rainfall causes flash floods in urban areas.
Climate Change and Rising Sea Levels: Increased temperatures intensify rainfall patterns and cause sea-level rise, increasing flood risks.
E.g., Mumbai is projected to see a 25% increase in flash flood intensity and a half-meter rise in sea level by 2050 (McKinsey India, 2021).
Extreme Rainfall Events: Climate change has led to more frequent and intense rainfall, exceeding urban drainage capacity.
E.g., Record-breaking rainfall in Mumbai (2019) resulted in severe urban flooding.

Anthropogenic causes:

Poor Urban Planning: Unplanned expansion and encroachment on water bodies obstruct natural drainage.
E.g., Chennai’s 2015 flood was worsened by encroachments on lakes and wetlands (CAG report).
Inadequate Drainage Systems: Outdated and undersized drainage infrastructure cannot handle excessive rainfall.
E.g., Bengaluru’s 2022 floods were aggravated by clogged stormwater drains (BBMP report).
Loss of Green Cover and Wetlands: Rapid urbanization destroys natural flood buffers, reducing water absorption.
E.g., Hyderabad’s shrinking lakes contributed to its 2020 flood (Hyderabad Urban Lab).
Encroachment on Natural Water Bodies: Urban expansion diminishes lakes and rivers’ capacity to manage excess water.
E.g., Bengaluru has lost 79% of its water bodies, increasing flood risks.
Impervious Surfaces and Concretization: Excessive construction reduces water absorption, leading to high runoff.
E.g., Mumbai saw a 99.9% increase in built-up areas over 27 years, worsening floods.
Outdated Drainage Planning: Lack of modern drainage infrastructure leads to frequent flooding.
E.g., Delhi’s drainage master plan dates back to 1976, contributing to recurrent waterlogging.
Improper Waste Management: Plastic waste and debris clog drains, blocking water flow.
E.g., Mumbai’s 2005 floods were worsened by plastic waste clogging drainage systems.
Unplanned Development in Ecologically Sensitive Areas: Construction in fragile regions heightens flood risks.
E.g., The 2013 Kedarnath floods were aggravated by unregulated development in high-risk zones.

Features of two such major floods in the last two decades in India:

1. Chennai Floods( 2015)
  1. Causes: Excessive rainfall (~300mm in a day), encroachment on wetlands, and poor drainage systems.
  2. Impact: Over 500 deaths, 1.8 million people affected, and ₹20,000 crore in economic losses.
  3. Consequences: Severe disruption to infrastructure, power supply, and essential services.
  4. Response: Rescue efforts were delayed, exposing gaps in urban flood preparedness.

Delhi Floods (2023)

1. Causes: Excessive rainfall (260mm in 24 hours), Yamuna River breaching its highest level in 45 years (208.6m), rapid urbanization, encroachments, and poor drainage.
2. Impact: Submergence of low-lying areas, flooding of roads, homes, schools, and government buildings.
3. Contributing Factors: Deforestation, loss of green cover, and improper solid waste management worsened the crisis.

Policies and frameworks in India that aim at tackling such floods:

1. National Water Mission: Promotes integrated water resource management and conservation.
2. Disaster Management Act, 2005: Provides a legal framework for disaster preparedness and response.
3. National Disaster Management Plan (2016): Focuses on flood risk reduction and community-based approaches.
4. National Disaster Management Guidelines (2010): Issued by NDMA for urban flood resilience, drainage planning, and early warning systems.
5. Central Water Commission Guidelines: Recommends best practices for urban flood management.

AMRUT (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation): Enhances urban stormwater drainage and rainwater harvesting.

Smart Cities Mission (2015): Integrates flood mitigation strategies in sustainable urban planning.

Building flood-resilient cities requires sustainable urban planning, climate adaptation strategies, and innovative approaches like the “Sponge City” concept. Strengthening policies such as NDMA guidelines and AMRUT with green infrastructure and community participation is essential. By addressing root causes and integrating climate-resilient solutions, India can mitigate urban flooding and ensure sustainable urban development.

19. India has a long and troubled border with China and Pakistan fraught with contentious issues. Examine the conflicting issues and security challenges along the border. Also give out the development being undertaken in these areas under the Border Area Development Programme (BADP) and Border Infrastructure and Management (BIM) Scheme.

View

India’s borders with China (3,488 km) and Pakistan (3,323 km) are among the most geopolitically sensitive in the world, marked by unresolved territorial disputes and frequent tensions. The Line of Actual Control (LAC) and Line of Control (LoC) remain flashpoints, requiring robust defense strategies, diplomatic engagement, and infrastructure development to ensure national security and regional stability.

Conflicting Issues and Security Challenges Along the India- Pakistan Border:

Territorial Disputes: The Kashmir conflict remains the primary source of tension, leading to wars in 1947, 1965, and 1999. The Line of Control (LoC) remains a contested boundary.
Cross-Border Terrorism: Pakistan-backed terrorist groups, such as Lashkar-e-Taiba, have carried out major attacks, including the 2008 Mumbai attacks and the 2019 Pulwama attack.
Smuggling of Arms and Narcotics: The porous border, particularly in Punjab, is used to smuggle weapons and drugs, fueling organized crime and terrorism.
Proxy War and Insurgency: Pakistan supports insurgents in Jammu & Kashmir, destabilizing the region through radicalization and armed conflict.
Ceasefire Violations: Frequent LoC violations cause military and civilian casualties, with over 100 violations reported in 2021.
Infiltration Attempts: Militant groups regularly attempt to cross into Indian territory, as seen in the 2016 Pathankot attack.

Conflicting Issues and Security Challenges Along the India-China Border:

Territorial Disputes: China claims Arunachal Pradesh as “South Tibet,” while India asserts its sovereignty, adding to tensions.
Frequent Border Standoffs: Differing perceptions of the LAC result in regular military standoffs, such as those in Eastern Ladakh post-Galwan clash.
Infrastructure Development Race: China’s rapid construction of roads, airstrips, and bases in Tibet, like the Doklam standoff in 2017, escalates tensions.
Strategic Concerns: Critical locations like the Siliguri Corridor are vulnerable to Chinese aggression, posing a security challenge for India’s northeastern connectivity.
Cybersecurity Threats: Chinese state-sponsored cyberattacks target Indian infrastructure and government networks, heightening security concerns.
Resource Competition: Control over transboundary rivers originating in Tibet, such as the Brahmaputra, raises geopolitical and environmental concerns.
China-Pakistan Nexus: The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) passing through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK) strengthens China’s influence in the region, challenging India’s strategic interests.

Developments under Border Area Development Program:

Infrastructure Enhancement: Construction of roads, bridges, and border roads improves connectivity and mobility for civilians and security forces.
1. E.g., New roads built in Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh enhanced access to remote areas.
Healthcare and Education: Establishment of schools and healthcare centers improves living standards in border communities.
1. E.g., Primary schools and health centers developed in Jammu & Kashmir’s border districts.
Skill Development & Employment Generation: Training programs equip locals with vocational skills, creating employment opportunities.
1. E.g., Vocational training workshops introduced in Uttarakhand and the Northeast.
Electrification & Basic Amenities: Solar power installations, drinking water supply, and sanitation projects enhance living conditions.
1. E.g., Villages in Arunachal Pradesh electrified under BADP initiatives.
Agriculture and Livelihood Support: Promotion of organic farming, animal husbandry, and horticulture boosts local economies.
1. E.g., Organic farming projects in the Northeast leverage the region’s biodiversity.
Community-Centric Development: Establishment of community centers, sports facilities, and bunkers for civilian protection in conflict-prone areas.
1. E.g., Community infrastructure projects launched in Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir.

Developments under Border Infrastructure and Management Program:

High-Tech Surveillance: Deployment of UAVs, thermal imaging cameras, and smart fencing enhances border security.
1. E.g., Smart fencing along the India-Pakistan and India-Bangladesh borders improves monitoring.
Road and Tunnel Development: Construction of strategic roads and tunnels ensures better mobility for defense and civilians.
1. E.g., Atal Tunnel in Himachal Pradesh provides year-round connectivity to Ladakh.
Railway and Airfield Expansion: Development of rail links and airstrips enables rapid troop movement and logistical support.
1. E.g., Rail connectivity projects in Northeast India strengthen strategic capabilities.
Integrated Check Posts (ICPs): Modern border posts facilitate trade, immigration, and security operations.
1. E.g., ICPs along the India-Pakistan border streamline customs and immigration.
Renewable Energy Deployment: Use of solar and other renewable energy sources for sustainable border operations.
1. E.g., Solar power installations in remote border areas reduce reliance on conventional energy.
Border Outposts (BOPs) and Helipads: Establishment of new BOPs and helipads to improve rapid response capabilities.
1. E.g., New BOPs in Arunachal Pradesh and helipads built in Ladakh for better military readiness.

India’s borders with China and Pakistan pose security and strategic challenges, necessitating a comprehensive approach. Programs like BADP and BIM strengthen infrastructure, improve security, and support local communities. A balanced strategy combining defense preparedness, infrastructure development, and diplomatic efforts is crucial for long-term stability, ensuring both national security and regional progress in these sensitive border areas.

20. Social media and encrypting messaging services pose a serious security challenge. What measures have been adopted at various levels to address the security implications of social media? Also suggest any other remedies to address the problem.

View

Social media and encrypted messaging services boost connectivity but also pose security threats like misinformation, radicalization, and cybercrime. In India, these risks endanger national security and privacy. The Indian telecom data breach in January 2024,impacted 85% of the population, exposing vulnerabilities in government and telecom data security systems.

Security Challenges Posed by Social Media and Encrypted Messaging Services:

Misinformation Spread: Social media enables the rapid circulation of fake news, leading to unrest.
1. E.g. COVID-19 lockdown rumors causing panic.
Radicalization: Encrypted platforms facilitate extremist recruitment and propaganda.
1. E.g. Terrorist groups using Telegram.
Data Privacy Risks: User data is misused for commercial and political exploitation.
1. E.g. 2018 Cambridge Analytica scandal.
Election Manipulation: Social media is used to spread misinformation and sway elections.
1. E.g. Allegations in India’s 2019 General Elections.
Cybercrime & Identity Theft: Platforms enable scams, phishing, and deepfake frauds.
1. E.g. 2023 deepfake scams with celebrity faces.

Measures adopted at various levels to address the security implications of Social Media:

Global Level:

EU Digital Services Act – Strengthens regulations on platforms to combat illegal content, curb misinformation, and enhance accountability.
OECD Internet Policy Guidelines – Emphasize freedom of expression, privacy protection, and security while ensuring platforms are accountable for illegal content.
Budapest Convention on Cybercrime – Promotes international cooperation in investigating and combating cybercrimes across borders.

National Level:

IT Rules 2021 (India) – Regulates social media and digital content by mandating platforms to trace the first originator of harmful content and comply with removal requests.
1. E.g. Twitter was asked to take down posts during the 2021 farmer protests.
Digital Personal Data Protection Act 2023 – Strengthens data protection, privacy rights, and data localization, ensuring user data is stored within India and platforms are accountable for breaches.
Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) – Enhances law enforcement coordination to monitor, track, and address cybercrimes and social media threats across platforms.
Fact-Checking and Misinformation Control – Platforms collaborate with third-party fact-checkers to identify and label false information, especially during elections and public health crises (e.g., COVID-19 pandemic).
Cybersecurity Awareness Campaigns – Governments and organizations educate users on online security risks, phishing attacks, and best practices to protect data and social media accounts from hacking.

Other Remedies to address the problem:

Global Cybersecurity Cooperation: Strengthening international data-sharing and cyber threat intelligence partnerships, such as the Five Eyes Alliance.
Early Threat Detection Frameworks : Implementing proactive mechanisms for identifying cyber threats, like Cyber Swachhta Kendra.
Digital Literacy Initiatives :Promoting cybersecurity awareness to curb misinformation and enhance data protection.
1. E.g. Cyber Swachhta Kendra educating citizens on safe online practices.
Public-Private Cybersecurity Partnerships : Collaboration between CERT-In and social media platforms for real-time threat intelligence sharing.
Balanced Encryption Policies : Ensuring lawful access to encrypted data for crime prevention while safeguarding user privacy.
1. E.g. Authorities seeking decryption for terrorism investigations.
Stronger Cyber Laws: Updating regulations to effectively address cybercrime and data breaches, incorporating recommendations from the BN Srikrishna Committee.
Global Collaboration Against Cyber Threats: Strengthening international efforts to combat cybercrime, such as India’s participation in the Budapest Convention.

A balanced approach to social media security must safeguard privacy, free speech, and national security. India’s evolving regulations aim to address these challenges, requiring a holistic strategy of legal, technological, and educational measures for a secure digital ecosystem.

UPSC 2024 GS 3 | SPM IAS

1. Examine the pattern and trend of public expenditure on social services in the post-reforms period in India. To what extent has this been in consonance with achieving the objective of inclusive growth?

2. What are the causes of persistent high food inflation in India? Comment on the effectiveness of the monetary policy of the RBI to control this type of inflation.

3. What were the factors responsible for the successful implementation of land reforms in some parts of the country? Elaborate.

4. Explain the role of millets for ensuring health and nutritional security in India.

5. What is the present world scenario of intellectual property rights with respect to life materials? Despite India being second in the world to file patents, only a few are commercialized. Explain the reasons behind this less commercialization.

6. What technology is being employed for electronic toll collection on highways? What are its advantages and limitations?

7. Industrial pollution of river water is a significant environmental issue in India. Discuss various mitigation measures and government initiatives to address this problem.

8. What role do environmental NGOs and activists play in influencing Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) outcomes for major projects in India? Cite four examples with all important details. (Answer in 150 words)

9. Explain how narco-terrorism has emerged as a serious threat across the country. Suggest measures to counter narco-terrorism.

10. Describe the context and salient features of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023.

11.Discuss the merits and demerits of the four labour codes in the context of labour market reforms in India. What has been the progress so far?

12. What is the need for expanding regional air connectivity in India? Discuss the achievements of the government’s UDAN Scheme.

13.What are the major challenges faced by the Indian irrigation system in recent times? State measures taken by the government for efficient irrigation management.

14. Elucidate the importance of buffer stocks for stabilizing agricultural prices in India. What are the challenges associated with the storage of buffer stock? Discuss.

15. The world is facing an acute shortage of clean and safe freshwater. What are the alternative technologies which can solve this crisis? Briefly discuss any three such technologies citing their key merits and demerits.

16. What are asteroids? How real is the threat of them causing extinction of life? What strategies have been developed to prevent such a catastrophe?

17. What is disaster resilience? How is it determined? Describe various elements of a resilience framework. Also mention the global targets of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030).

18. Flooding in urban areas is an emerging climate-induced disaster. Discuss the causes of this disaster. Mention the features of two such major floods in the last two decades in India. Describe the policies and frameworks in India that aim at tackling such floods.

20. Social media and encrypting messaging services pose a serious security challenge. What measures have been adopted at various levels to address the security implications of social media? Also suggest any other remedies to address the problem.

Get your free e-book

STAY UPDATED

Free Counselling